Pathways

Rhamnolipids (RL) consist of a fatty acyl moiety composed of a 3-(3-hydroxyalkanoyloxy)alkaloid acid (HAA) and a sugar moiety composed of one or two rhamnose sugars. Rhamnolipids function as surfactants and virulence factors and are involved in biofilm formation and cell motility. The rhamnose sugar component is produced via the dTDP-L-rhamnose biosynthetic pathway which forms dTDP-L-rhamnose from glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) in five steps. First, glucose 6-phosphate is converted into glucose 1-phosphate (G1P) via the enzyme phosphoglucomutase (AlgC). Second, glucose 1-phosphate is converted into dTDP-D-glucose via the enzyme glucose-1-phosphate thymidylyltransferase (RmlA). Third, dTDP-D-glucose is converted into dTDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-D-glucose via the enzyme dTDP-glucose 4,6-dehydratase (RmlB). Fourth, dTDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-D-glucose is converted into dTDP-4-dehydro-L-rhamnose via the enzyme dTDP-4-dehydrorhamnose 3,5-epimerase (RmlC). Fifth, dTDP-4-dehydro-L-rhamnose is converted into dTDP-L-rhamnose via the enzyme dTDP-4-dehydrorhamnose reductase (RmlD). The HAA component is synthesized from 3-hydroxyacyl-[acyl-carrier protein] diverted from fatty acid biosynthesis via the enzyme 3-(3-hydroxydecanoyloxy)decanoate synthase (RhIA). The final step in rhamnolipid biosynthesis is the formation of the glycosidic link between the rhamnose sugar component and the HAA component. This is accomplished by two rhamnosyltransferases (RhlB and RhlC) which catalyze sequential glycosyl transfer reactions to first form mono-rhamnolipids (via RhIB) and then di-rhamnolipids (via RhIC). RHlA, RHlB, and RHlC are associated with the inner membrane.

Rhamnolipids (RL) consist of a fatty acyl moiety composed of a 3-(3-hydroxyalkanoyloxy)alkaloid acid (HAA) and a sugar moiety composed of one or two rhamnose sugars. Rhamnolipids function as surfactants and virulence factors and are involved in biofilm formation and cell motility. The rhamnose sugar component is produced via the dTDP-L-rhamnose biosynthetic pathway which forms dTDP-L-rhamnose from glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) in five steps. First, glucose 6-phosphate is converted into glucose 1-phosphate (G1P) via the enzyme phosphoglucomutase (AlgC). Second, glucose 1-phosphate is converted into dTDP-D-glucose via the enzyme glucose-1-phosphate thymidylyltransferase (RmlA). Third, dTDP-D-glucose is converted into dTDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-D-glucose via the enzyme dTDP-glucose 4,6-dehydratase (RmlB). Fourth, dTDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-D-glucose is converted into dTDP-4-dehydro-L-rhamnose via the enzyme dTDP-4-dehydrorhamnose 3,5-epimerase (RmlC). Fifth, dTDP-4-dehydro-L-rhamnose is converted into dTDP-L-rhamnose via the enzyme dTDP-4-dehydrorhamnose reductase (RmlD). The HAA component is synthesized from 3-hydroxyacyl-[acyl-carrier protein] diverted from fatty acid biosynthesis via the enzyme 3-(3-hydroxydecanoyloxy)decanoate synthase (RhIA). The final step in rhamnolipid biosynthesis is the formation of the glycosidic link between the rhamnose sugar component and the HAA component. This is accomplished by two rhamnosyltransferases (RhlB and RhlC) which catalyze sequential glycosyl transfer reactions to first form mono-rhamnolipids (via RhIB) and then di-rhamnolipids (via RhIC). RHlA, RHlB, and RHlC are associated with the inner membrane.

Rhamnolipids (RL) consist of a fatty acyl moiety composed of a 3-(3-hydroxyalkanoyloxy)alkaloid acid (HAA) and a sugar moiety composed of one or two rhamnose sugars. Rhamnolipids function as surfactants and virulence factors and are involved in biofilm formation and cell motility. The rhamnose sugar component is produced via the dTDP-L-rhamnose biosynthetic pathway which forms dTDP-L-rhamnose from glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) in five steps. First, glucose 6-phosphate is converted into glucose 1-phosphate (G1P) via the enzyme phosphoglucomutase (AlgC). Second, glucose 1-phosphate is converted into dTDP-D-glucose via the enzyme glucose-1-phosphate thymidylyltransferase (RmlA). Third, dTDP-D-glucose is converted into dTDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-D-glucose via the enzyme dTDP-glucose 4,6-dehydratase (RmlB). Fourth, dTDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-D-glucose is converted into dTDP-4-dehydro-L-rhamnose via the enzyme dTDP-4-dehydrorhamnose 3,5-epimerase (RmlC). Fifth, dTDP-4-dehydro-L-rhamnose is converted into dTDP-L-rhamnose via the enzyme dTDP-4-dehydrorhamnose reductase (RmlD). The HAA component is synthesized from 3-hydroxyacyl-[acyl-carrier protein] diverted from fatty acid biosynthesis via the enzyme 3-(3-hydroxydecanoyloxy)decanoate synthase (RhIA). The final step in rhamnolipid biosynthesis is the formation of the glycosidic link between the rhamnose sugar component and the HAA component. This is accomplished by two rhamnosyltransferases (RhlB and RhlC) which catalyze sequential glycosyl transfer reactions to first form mono-rhamnolipids (via RhIB) and then di-rhamnolipids (via RhIC). RHlA, RHlB, and RHlC are associated with the inner membrane.

Rhamnolipids (RL) consist of a fatty acyl moiety composed of a 3-(3-hydroxyalkanoyloxy)alkaloid acid (HAA) and a sugar moiety composed of one or two rhamnose sugars. Rhamnolipids function as surfactants and virulence factors and are involved in biofilm formation and cell motility. The rhamnose sugar component is produced via the dTDP-L-rhamnose biosynthetic pathway which forms dTDP-L-rhamnose from glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) in five steps. First, glucose 6-phosphate is converted into glucose 1-phosphate (G1P) via the enzyme phosphoglucomutase (AlgC). Second, glucose 1-phosphate is converted into dTDP-D-glucose via the enzyme glucose-1-phosphate thymidylyltransferase (RmlA). Third, dTDP-D-glucose is converted into dTDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-D-glucose via the enzyme dTDP-glucose 4,6-dehydratase (RmlB). Fourth, dTDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-D-glucose is converted into dTDP-4-dehydro-L-rhamnose via the enzyme dTDP-4-dehydrorhamnose 3,5-epimerase (RmlC). Fifth, dTDP-4-dehydro-L-rhamnose is converted into dTDP-L-rhamnose via the enzyme dTDP-4-dehydrorhamnose reductase (RmlD). The HAA component is synthesized from 3-hydroxyacyl-[acyl-carrier protein] diverted from fatty acid biosynthesis via the enzyme 3-(3-hydroxydecanoyloxy)decanoate synthase (RhIA). The final step in rhamnolipid biosynthesis is the formation of the glycosidic link between the rhamnose sugar component and the HAA component. This is accomplished by two rhamnosyltransferases (RhlB and RhlC) which catalyze sequential glycosyl transfer reactions to first form mono-rhamnolipids (via RhIB) and then di-rhamnolipids (via RhIC). RHlA, RHlB, and RHlC are associated with the inner membrane.

Rhamnolipids (RL) consist of a fatty acyl moiety composed of a 3-(3-hydroxyalkanoyloxy)alkaloid acid (HAA) and a sugar moiety composed of one or two rhamnose sugars. Rhamnolipids function as surfactants and virulence factors and are involved in biofilm formation and cell motility. The rhamnose sugar component is produced via the dTDP-L-rhamnose biosynthetic pathway which forms dTDP-L-rhamnose from glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) in five steps. First, glucose 6-phosphate is converted into glucose 1-phosphate (G1P) via the enzyme phosphoglucomutase (AlgC). Second, glucose 1-phosphate is converted into dTDP-D-glucose via the enzyme glucose-1-phosphate thymidylyltransferase (RmlA). Third, dTDP-D-glucose is converted into dTDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-D-glucose via the enzyme dTDP-glucose 4,6-dehydratase (RmlB). Fourth, dTDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-D-glucose is converted into dTDP-4-dehydro-L-rhamnose via the enzyme dTDP-4-dehydrorhamnose 3,5-epimerase (RmlC). Fifth, dTDP-4-dehydro-L-rhamnose is converted into dTDP-L-rhamnose via the enzyme dTDP-4-dehydrorhamnose reductase (RmlD). The HAA component is synthesized from 3-hydroxyacyl-[acyl-carrier protein] diverted from fatty acid biosynthesis via the enzyme 3-(3-hydroxydecanoyloxy)decanoate synthase (RhIA). The final step in rhamnolipid biosynthesis is the formation of the glycosidic link between the rhamnose sugar component and the HAA component. This is accomplished by two rhamnosyltransferases (RhlB and RhlC) which catalyze sequential glycosyl transfer reactions to first form mono-rhamnolipids (via RhIB) and then di-rhamnolipids (via RhIC). RHlA, RHlB, and RHlC are associated with the inner membrane.

Rhamnolipids (RL) consist of a fatty acyl moiety composed of a 3-(3-hydroxyalkanoyloxy)alkaloid acid (HAA) and a sugar moiety composed of one or two rhamnose sugars. Rhamnolipids function as surfactants and virulence factors and are involved in biofilm formation and cell motility. The rhamnose sugar component is produced via the dTDP-L-rhamnose biosynthetic pathway which forms dTDP-L-rhamnose from glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) in five steps. First, glucose 6-phosphate is converted into glucose 1-phosphate (G1P) via the enzyme phosphoglucomutase (AlgC). Second, glucose 1-phosphate is converted into dTDP-D-glucose via the enzyme glucose-1-phosphate thymidylyltransferase (RmlA). Third, dTDP-D-glucose is converted into dTDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-D-glucose via the enzyme dTDP-glucose 4,6-dehydratase (RmlB). Fourth, dTDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-D-glucose is converted into dTDP-4-dehydro-L-rhamnose via the enzyme dTDP-4-dehydrorhamnose 3,5-epimerase (RmlC). Fifth, dTDP-4-dehydro-L-rhamnose is converted into dTDP-L-rhamnose via the enzyme dTDP-4-dehydrorhamnose reductase (RmlD). The HAA component is synthesized from 3-hydroxyacyl-[acyl-carrier protein] diverted from fatty acid biosynthesis via the enzyme 3-(3-hydroxydecanoyloxy)decanoate synthase (RhIA). The final step in rhamnolipid biosynthesis is the formation of the glycosidic link between the rhamnose sugar component and the HAA component. This is accomplished by two rhamnosyltransferases (RhlB and RhlC) which catalyze sequential glycosyl transfer reactions to first form mono-rhamnolipids (via RhIB) and then di-rhamnolipids (via RhIC). RHlA, RHlB, and RHlC are associated with the inner membrane.

Rhamnolipids (RL) consist of a fatty acyl moiety composed of a 3-(3-hydroxyalkanoyloxy)alkaloid acid (HAA) and a sugar moiety composed of one or two rhamnose sugars. Rhamnolipids function as surfactants and virulence factors and are involved in biofilm formation and cell motility. The rhamnose sugar component is produced via the dTDP-L-rhamnose biosynthetic pathway which forms dTDP-L-rhamnose from glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) in five steps. First, glucose 6-phosphate is converted into glucose 1-phosphate (G1P) via the enzyme phosphoglucomutase (AlgC). Second, glucose 1-phosphate is converted into dTDP-D-glucose via the enzyme glucose-1-phosphate thymidylyltransferase (RmlA). Third, dTDP-D-glucose is converted into dTDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-D-glucose via the enzyme dTDP-glucose 4,6-dehydratase (RmlB). Fourth, dTDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-D-glucose is converted into dTDP-4-dehydro-L-rhamnose via the enzyme dTDP-4-dehydrorhamnose 3,5-epimerase (RmlC). Fifth, dTDP-4-dehydro-L-rhamnose is converted into dTDP-L-rhamnose via the enzyme dTDP-4-dehydrorhamnose reductase (RmlD). The HAA component is synthesized from 3-hydroxyacyl-[acyl-carrier protein] diverted from fatty acid biosynthesis via the enzyme 3-(3-hydroxydecanoyloxy)decanoate synthase (RhIA). The final step in rhamnolipid biosynthesis is the formation of the glycosidic link between the rhamnose sugar component and the HAA component. This is accomplished by two rhamnosyltransferases (RhlB and RhlC) which catalyze sequential glycosyl transfer reactions to first form mono-rhamnolipids (via RhIB) and then di-rhamnolipids (via RhIC). RHlA, RHlB, and RHlC are associated with the inner membrane.

Ribavirin is a synthetic guanosine nucleoside used to treat Influenza A and, recently, Hepatitis C. This an antiviral agent that interferes with the synthesis of viral mRNA. Ribavirin is a prodrug that is metabolized into nucleoside analogs that blocks viral RNA synthesis and viral mRNA capping. According to 2017 American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD) and 2015 consensus guidelines from the Canadian Association for the Study of the Liver (CASL), ribavirin is typically used as an adjunct therapy to various first-line and second-line combination therapies recommended for each genotypes. Ribavirin is added to decrease relapse rates by accelerating viral clearance early in the treatment course. When used to treat Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections, it is always used as a part of combination therapies as ribavirin monotherapy is not efficacious in the treatment of chronic hepatitis C infection. Ribavirin has several mechanism of actions that lead to inhibition of viral RNA and protein synthesis. Firstly, this drug is activated by its phosphorylation by adenosine kinase and result in ribavirin mono-, di-, and triphosphate metabolites. Ribavirin triphosphate (RTP) is the predominant metabolite which directly inhibits viral mRNA polymerase by binding to the nucleotide binding site of the enzyme. This prevents the binding of the correct nucleotides, leading to a reduction in viral replication or to the production of defective virions. Ribavirin is reported to have several mechanism of actions that lead to inhibition of viral RNA and protein synthesis. After activation by adenosine kinase to ribavirin mono-, di-, and triphosphate metabolites. Ribavirin triphosphate (RTP) is the predominant metabolite which directly inhibits viral mRNA polymerase by binding to the nucleotide binding site of the enzyme. This prevents the binding of the correct nucleotides, leading to a reduction in viral replication or to the production of defective virions. Inhibition of host inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) and subsequent depletion of GTP pool is proposed to be another mechanism of action of ribavirin. This drug acts as a mutagen in the target virus to cause an 'error catastrophe' due to increased viral mutations. RTP pairs with cytidine triphosphate or uridine triphosphate with equal efficiency and to block HCV RNA elongation. It causes premature termination of nascent HCV RNA and increases mutagenesis by producing defective virions. This pathway shows the mechanism of action of this drug on influenza A virus only. This drug can also treat Hepatitis C, in hepatocyte cells instead of in the trachea's epithelial cells.

Ribavirin is a drug that is not metabolized by the human body as determined by current research and biotransformer analysis. Ribavirin passes through the liver and is then excreted from the body mainly through the kidney.