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Pathway Description
Glycine Betaine Biosynthesis II
Arabidopsis thaliana
Category:
Metabolite Pathway
Sub-Category:
Metabolic
Created: 2017-02-23
Last Updated: 2019-09-12
Glycine betaine biosynthesis I, beginning in the cytosol and ending in the peroxisome results in the synthesis of glycine betaine from choline produced from the choline biosynthesis I pathway. Glycine betaine is an amino acid derivative that occurs in plants which serves as a protectant against osmotic stress, mutagenesis, and radiation-induced damage. First, serine decarboxylase (SDC) uses a proton and a pyridoxal 5'-phosphate cofactor to catalyze the conversion of L-serine to ethanolamine, producing carbon dioxide as a byproduct. Second, ethanolamine kinase, localized to the cell membrane (coloured dark green in the image), uses ATP to catalyze the conversion of ethanolamine to O-phosphoethanolamine. Note that this is only the probable ethanolamine kinase in Arabidopsis thaliana and requires further research to confirm its function. Steps 3, 4, and 5 are catalyzed by phosphoethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PEAMT). These three sequential N-methylation steps convert phosphoethanolamine to phosphocholine and utilize S-adenosyl-L-methionine as a methyl donor. The intermediates are as follows: O-Phosphoethanolamine, N-methylethanolamine phosphate, and N-dimethylethanolamine phosphate. Sixth, choline-phosphate cytidylyltransferase (CCT) uses CTP to convert phosphocholine to CDP-choline. Seventh, choline/ethanolaminephosphotransferase (AAPT) uses a 1,2-diacyl-sn-glycerol and either magnesium or manganese ions as cofactors to convert CDP-choline into a phosphatidyl choline, producing CMP and a proton as byproducts. Eighth, phospholipase D uses a calcium cofactor and water to convert a phosphatidylcholine to choline, producing a 1,2-diacyl-sn-glycerol 3-phosphate and a proton as byproducts. Choline is then theorized to be transported into the peroxisome. Ninth, choline monooxygenase is a predicted enzyme that is theorized to catalyze the conversion of choline into betaine aldehyde hydrate. Tenth, betaine aldehyde hydrate spontaneously becomes betaine aldehyde, producing water as a byproduct. Eleventh, betaine aldehyde uses NAD and water to convet betaine aldehyde into glycine betaine.
References
Glycine Betaine Biosynthesis II References
BeGora MD, Macleod MJ, McCarry BE, Summers PS, Weretilnyk EA: Identification of phosphomethylethanolamine N-methyltransferase from Arabidopsis and its role in choline and phospholipid metabolism. J Biol Chem. 2010 Sep 17;285(38):29147-55. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M110.112151. Epub 2010 Jul 22.
Pubmed: 20650897
Lin YC, Liu YC, Nakamura Y: The Choline/Ethanolamine Kinase Family in Arabidopsis: Essential Role of CEK4 in Phospholipid Biosynthesis and Embryo Development. Plant Cell. 2015 May;27(5):1497-511. doi: 10.1105/tpc.15.00207. Epub 2015 May 12.
Pubmed: 25966764
Xing W, Rajashekar CB: Glycine betaine involvement in freezing tolerance and water stress in Arabidopsis thaliana. Environ Exp Bot. 2001 Aug;46(1):21-28.
Pubmed: 11378169
Fujimori K, Ohta D: Heavy metal induction of Arabidopsis serine decarboxylase gene expression. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2003 Apr;67(4):896-8. doi: 10.1271/bbb.67.896.
Pubmed: 12784636
Kwon Y, Yu SI, Lee H, Yim JH, Zhu JK, Lee BH: Arabidopsis serine decarboxylase mutants implicate the roles of ethanolamine in plant growth and development. Int J Mol Sci. 2012;13(3):3176-88. doi: 10.3390/ijms13033176. Epub 2012 Mar 7.
Pubmed: 22489147
Rontein D, Nishida I, Tashiro G, Yoshioka K, Wu WI, Voelker DR, Basset G, Hanson AD: Plants synthesize ethanolamine by direct decarboxylation of serine using a pyridoxal phosphate enzyme. J Biol Chem. 2001 Sep 21;276(38):35523-9. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M106038200. Epub 2001 Jul 18.
Pubmed: 11461929
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Pubmed: 11130712
Cheng CY, Krishnakumar V, Chan AP, Thibaud-Nissen F, Schobel S, Town CD: Araport11: a complete reannotation of the Arabidopsis thaliana reference genome. Plant J. 2017 Feb;89(4):789-804. doi: 10.1111/tpj.13415. Epub 2017 Feb 10.
Pubmed: 27862469
Yamada K, Lim J, Dale JM, Chen H, Shinn P, Palm CJ, Southwick AM, Wu HC, Kim C, Nguyen M, Pham P, Cheuk R, Karlin-Newmann G, Liu SX, Lam B, Sakano H, Wu T, Yu G, Miranda M, Quach HL, Tripp M, Chang CH, Lee JM, Toriumi M, Chan MM, Tang CC, Onodera CS, Deng JM, Akiyama K, Ansari Y, Arakawa T, Banh J, Banno F, Bowser L, Brooks S, Carninci P, Chao Q, Choy N, Enju A, Goldsmith AD, Gurjal M, Hansen NF, Hayashizaki Y, Johnson-Hopson C, Hsuan VW, Iida K, Karnes M, Khan S, Koesema E, Ishida J, Jiang PX, Jones T, Kawai J, Kamiya A, Meyers C, Nakajima M, Narusaka M, Seki M, Sakurai T, Satou M, Tamse R, Vaysberg M, Wallender EK, Wong C, Yamamura Y, Yuan S, Shinozaki K, Davis RW, Theologis A, Ecker JR: Empirical analysis of transcriptional activity in the Arabidopsis genome. Science. 2003 Oct 31;302(5646):842-6. doi: 10.1126/science.1088305.
Pubmed: 14593172
Bolognese CP, McGraw P: The isolation and characterization in yeast of a gene for Arabidopsis S-adenosylmethionine:phospho-ethanolamine N-methyltransferase. Plant Physiol. 2000 Dec;124(4):1800-13. doi: 10.1104/pp.124.4.1800.
Pubmed: 11115895
Sato S, Nakamura Y, Kaneko T, Katoh T, Asamizu E, Tabata S: Structural analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana chromosome 3. I. Sequence features of the regions of 4,504,864 bp covered by sixty P1 and TAC clones. DNA Res. 2000 Apr 28;7(2):131-5. doi: 10.1093/dnares/7.2.131.
Pubmed: 10819329
Lin X, Kaul S, Rounsley S, Shea TP, Benito MI, Town CD, Fujii CY, Mason T, Bowman CL, Barnstead M, Feldblyum TV, Buell CR, Ketchum KA, Lee J, Ronning CM, Koo HL, Moffat KS, Cronin LA, Shen M, Pai G, Van Aken S, Umayam L, Tallon LJ, Gill JE, Adams MD, Carrera AJ, Creasy TH, Goodman HM, Somerville CR, Copenhaver GP, Preuss D, Nierman WC, White O, Eisen JA, Salzberg SL, Fraser CM, Venter JC: Sequence and analysis of chromosome 2 of the plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Nature. 1999 Dec 16;402(6763):761-8. doi: 10.1038/45471.
Pubmed: 10617197
Fan L, Zheng S, Wang X: Antisense suppression of phospholipase D alpha retards abscisic acid- and ethylene-promoted senescence of postharvest Arabidopsis leaves. Plant Cell. 1997 Dec;9(12):2183-96. doi: 10.1105/tpc.9.12.2183.
Pubmed: 9437863
Pappan K, Austin-Brown S, Chapman KD, Wang X: Substrate selectivities and lipid modulation of plant phospholipase D alpha, -beta, and -gamma. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1998 May 1;353(1):131-40. doi: 10.1006/abbi.1998.0640.
Pubmed: 9578608
Salanoubat M, Lemcke K, Rieger M, Ansorge W, Unseld M, Fartmann B, Valle G, Blocker H, Perez-Alonso M, Obermaier B, Delseny M, Boutry M, Grivell LA, Mache R, Puigdomenech P, De Simone V, Choisne N, Artiguenave F, Robert C, Brottier P, Wincker P, Cattolico L, Weissenbach J, Saurin W, Quetier F, Schafer M, Muller-Auer S, Gabel C, Fuchs M, Benes V, Wurmbach E, Drzonek H, Erfle H, Jordan N, Bangert S, Wiedelmann R, Kranz H, Voss H, Holland R, Brandt P, Nyakatura G, Vezzi A, D'Angelo M, Pallavicini A, Toppo S, Simionati B, Conrad A, Hornischer K, Kauer G, Lohnert TH, Nordsiek G, Reichelt J, Scharfe M, Schon O, Bargues M, Terol J, Climent J, Navarro P, Collado C, Perez-Perez A, Ottenwalder B, Duchemin D, Cooke R, Laudie M, Berger-Llauro C, Purnelle B, Masuy D, de Haan M, Maarse AC, Alcaraz JP, Cottet A, Casacuberta E, Monfort A, Argiriou A, flores M, Liguori R, Vitale D, Mannhaupt G, Haase D, Schoof H, Rudd S, Zaccaria P, Mewes HW, Mayer KF, Kaul S, Town CD, Koo HL, Tallon LJ, Jenkins J, Rooney T, Rizzo M, Walts A, Utterback T, Fujii CY, Shea TP, Creasy TH, Haas B, Maiti R, Wu D, Peterson J, Van Aken S, Pai G, Militscher J, Sellers P, Gill JE, Feldblyum TV, Preuss D, Lin X, Nierman WC, Salzberg SL, White O, Venter JC, Fraser CM, Kaneko T, Nakamura Y, Sato S, Kato T, Asamizu E, Sasamoto S, Kimura T, Idesawa K, Kawashima K, Kishida Y, Kiyokawa C, Kohara M, Matsumoto M, Matsuno A, Muraki A, Nakayama S, Nakazaki N, Shinpo S, Takeuchi C, Wada T, Watanabe A, Yamada M, Yasuda M, Tabata S: Sequence and analysis of chromosome 3 of the plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Nature. 2000 Dec 14;408(6814):820-2. doi: 10.1038/35048706.
Pubmed: 11130713
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