Browsing Pathways

The biosynthesis of folic acid begins as a product of purine nucleotides de novo biosynthesis pathway. Purine nucleotides are involved in a reaction with water through a GTP cyclohydrolase 1 protein complex, resulting in a hydrogen ion, formic acid and 7,8-dihydroneopterin 3-triphosphate. The latter compound is dephosphorylated through a dihydroneopterin triphosphate pyrophosphohydrolase resulting in the release of a pyrophosphate, hydrogen ion and 7,8-dihydroneopterin 3-phosphate. The latter product reacts with water spontaneously resulting in the release of a phosphate and a 7,8 -dihydroneopterin. 7,8 -dihydroneopterin reacts with a dihydroneopterin aldolase, releasing a glycoaldehyde and 6-hydroxymethyl-7,9-dihydropterin. Continuing, 6-hydroxymethyl-7,9-dihydropterin is phosphorylated with a ATP-driven 6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin pyrophosphokinase resulting in a (2-amino-4-hydroxy-7,8-dihydropteridin-6-yl)methyl diphosphate. Chorismate is metabolized by reacting with L-glutamine through a 4-amino-4-deoxychorismate synthase resulting in L-glutamic acid and 4-amino-4-deoxychorismate. The latter product is then catalyzed via an aminodeoxychorismate lyase resulting in pyruvic acid, hydrogen ion and p-aminobenzoic acid. (2-amino-4-hydroxy-7,8-dihydropteridin-6-yl)methyl diphosphate and p-aminobenzoic acid react with the help of a dihydropteroate synthase resulting in pyrophosphate and 7,8-dihydropteroic acid. This compound then reacts with L-glutamic acid through an ATP driven bifunctional folylpolyglutamate synthease / dihydrofolate synthease resulting in a 7,8-dihydrofolate monoglutamate. 7,8-dihydrofolate monoglutamate is then reduced via a NADPH mediated dihydrofolate reductase resulting in a tetrahydrofate which will continue and become a metabolite of the folate pathway

Glycerol metabolism starts with glycerol is introduced into the cytoplasm through a glycerol channel GlpF Glycerol is then phosphorylated through an ATP mediated glycerol kinase resulting in a Glycerol 3-phosphate. This compound can also be obtained through a glycerophosphodiester reacting with water through a glycerophosphoryl diester phosphodiesterase or it can also be introduced into the cytoplasm through a glycerol-3-phosphate:phosphate antiporter. Glycerol 3-phosphate is then metabolized into a dihydroxyacetone phosphate in both aerobic or anaerobic conditions. In anaerobic conditions the metabolism is done through the reaction of glycerol 3-phosphate with a menaquinone mediated by a glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase protein complex. In aerobic conditions, the metabolism is done through the reaction of glycerol 3-phosphate with ubiquinone mediated by a glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase [NAD(P]+]. Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is then introduced into the fructose metabolism by turning a dihydroxyacetone into an isomer through a triosephosphate isomerase resulting in a D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate which in turn reacts with a phosphate through a NAD dependent Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase resulting in a glyceric acid 1,3-biphosphate. This compound is desphosphorylated by a phosphoglycerate kinase resulting in a 3-phosphoglyceric acid.This compound in turn can either react with a 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate-independent phosphoglycerate mutase or a 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate-independent phosphoglycerate mutase resulting in a 2-phospho-D-glyceric acid. This compound interacts with an enolase resulting in a phosphoenolpyruvic acid and water. Phosphoenolpyruvic acid can react either through a AMP driven phosphoenoylpyruvate synthase or a ADP driven pyruvate kinase protein complex resulting in a pyruvic acid. Pyruvic acid reacts with CoA through a NAD driven pyruvate dehydrogenase complex resulting in a carbon dioxide and a Acetyl-CoA which gets incorporated into the TCA cycle pathway.

Beta-Alanine metabolism starts as a product of aspartate metabolism. Aspartate is decarboxylated by aspartate 1-decarboxylase, releasing carbon dioxide and beta-alanine. Beta-Alanine is then metabolized through a pantothenate synthease resulting in pantothenic acid. Pantothenic acid then undergoes phosphorylation through an ATP-driven pantothenate kinase, resulting in D-4-phosphopantothenate. Pantothenate, vitamin B5, is a precursor for synthesis of 4'-phosphopantetheine moiety of coenzyme A and acyl carrier protein. Plants and microorganisms can synthesize pantothenate de novo, but animals must obtain it from diet. Enzymes of beta-alanine metabolism are targets for anti-microbial drugs.

The biosynthesis of folic acid begins as a product of purine nucleotides de novo biosynthesis pathway. Purine nucleotides are involved in a reaction with water through a GTP cyclohydrolase 1 protein complex, resulting in a hydrogen ion, formic acid and 7,8-dihydroneopterin 3-triphosphate. The latter compound is dephosphorylated through a dihydroneopterin triphosphate pyrophosphohydrolase resulting in the release of a pyrophosphate, hydrogen ion and 7,8-dihydroneopterin 3-phosphate. The latter product reacts with water spontaneously resulting in the release of a phosphate and a 7,8 -dihydroneopterin. 7,8 -dihydroneopterin reacts with a dihydroneopterin aldolase, releasing a glycoaldehyde and 6-hydroxymethyl-7,9-dihydropterin. Continuing, 6-hydroxymethyl-7,9-dihydropterin is phosphorylated with a ATP-driven 6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin pyrophosphokinase resulting in a (2-amino-4-hydroxy-7,8-dihydropteridin-6-yl)methyl diphosphate. Chorismate is metabolized by reacting with L-glutamine through a 4-amino-4-deoxychorismate synthase resulting in L-glutamic acid and 4-amino-4-deoxychorismate. The latter product is then catalyzed via an aminodeoxychorismate lyase resulting in pyruvic acid, hydrogen ion and p-aminobenzoic acid. (2-amino-4-hydroxy-7,8-dihydropteridin-6-yl)methyl diphosphate and p-aminobenzoic acid react with the help of a dihydropteroate synthase resulting in pyrophosphate and 7,8-dihydropteroic acid. This compound then reacts with L-glutamic acid through an ATP driven bifunctional folylpolyglutamate synthease / dihydrofolate synthease resulting in a 7,8-dihydrofolate monoglutamate. 7,8-dihydrofolate monoglutamate is then reduced via a NADPH mediated dihydrofolate reductase resulting in a tetrahydrofate which will continue and become a metabolite of the folate pathway

The process of oxidative phosphorylation involves multiple interactions of ubiquinone with succinic acid, resulting in a fumaric acid and ubiquinol. Ubiquinone interacts with succinic acid through a succinate:quinone oxidoreductase resulting in a fumaric acid an ubiquinol. This enzyme has various cofactors, ferroheme b, 2FE-2S, FAD, and 3Fe-4S iron-sulfur cluster. Then 2 ubiquinol interact with oxygen and 4 hydrogen ion through a cytochrome bd-I terminal oxidase resulting in a 4 hydrogen ion transferred into the periplasmic space, 2 water returned into the cytoplasm and 2 ubiquinone, which stay in the inner membrane. The ubiquinone interacts with succinic acid through a succinate:quinone oxidoreductase resulting in a fumaric acid an ubiquinol. Then 2 ubiquinol interacts with oxygen and 4 hydrogen ion through a cytochrome bd-II terminal oxidase resulting in a 4 hydrogen ion transferred into the periplasmic space, 2 water returned into the cytoplasm and 2 ubiquinone, which stay in the inner membrane. The ubiquinone interacts with succinic acid through a succinate:quinone oxidoreductase resulting in a fumaric acid an ubiquinol. The 2 ubiquinol interact with oxygen and 8 hydrogen ion through a cytochrome bo terminal oxidase resulting in a 8 hydrogen ion transferred into the periplasmic space, 2 water returned into the cytoplasm and 2 ubiquinone, which stays in the inner membrane. The ubiquinone then interacts with 5 hydrogen ion through a NADH dependent ubiquinone oxidoreductase I resulting in NAD, hydrogen ion released into the periplasmic space and an ubiquinol. The ubiquinol is then processed reacting with oxygen, and 4 hydrogen through a ion cytochrome bd-I terminal oxidase resulting in 4 hydrogen ions released into the periplasmic space, 2 water molecules into the cytoplasm and 2 ubiquinones. The ubiquinone then interacts with 5 hydrogen ion through a NADH dependent ubiquinone oxidoreductase I resulting in NAD, hydrogen ion released into the periplasmic space and an ubiquinol. The 2 ubiquinol interact with oxygen and 8 hydrogen ion through a cytochrome bo terminal oxidase resulting in a 8 hydrogen ion transferred into the periplasmic space, 2 water returned into the cytoplasm and 2 ubiquinone, which stays in the inner membrane.

The fatty acid biosynthesis starts from acetyl-CoA reacting either with a holo-[acp] through a 3-oxoacyl-[acp] synthase 3 resulting in an acetyl-[acp] or react with hydrogen carbonate through an ATP driven acetyl-CoA carboxylase resulting in a malonyl-CoA. Malonyl-CoA reacts with a holo-acp] through a malonyl-CoA-ACP transacylase resulting in a malonyl-[acp]. This compound can react with a KASI protein resulting in an acetyl-[acp]. A malonyl-[acp] can also react with an acetyl-[acp] through KASI and KASII or with acetyl-CoA through a beta-ketoacyl-ACP synthase to produce an acetoacetyl-[acp]. An acetoacetyl-[acp] is also known as a 3-oxoacyl-[acp]. A 3-oxoacyl-[acp] is reduced through a NDPH mediated 3-oxoacyl-[acp] reductase resulting in a (3R)-3-hydroxyacyl-[acp] (R3 hydroxydecanoyl-[acp]) which can either join the fatty acid metabolism, be dehydrated by an 3R-hydroxymyristoyl-[acp] dehydratase to produce a trans-2-enoyl-[acp] or be dehydrated by a hydroxydecanoyl-[acp] to produce a trans-delta2 decenoyl-[acp]. Trans-2-enoyl-[acp] is reduced by a NADH driven enoyl-[acp] reductase resulting in a 2,3,4-saturated fatty acyl-[acp]. This product then reacts with malonyl-[acp] through KASI and KASII resulting in a holo-acyl carrier protein and a 3- oxoacyl-[acp]. Trans-delta2 decenoyl-[acp] reacts with a 3-hydroxydecanoyl-[acp] dehydrase producing a cis-delta 3-decenoyl-ACP. This product then reacts with KASI to produce a 3-oxo-cis-delta5-dodecenoyl-[acp], which in turn is reduced by a NADPH driven 3-oxoacyl-[acp] resulting in a 3R-hydroxy cis delta5-dodecenoyl-acp. This product is dehydrated by a (3R)-hydroxymyristoyl-[acp] dehydratase resulting in a trans-delta 3- cis-delta 5-dodecenoyl-[acp] which in turn is reduced by a NADH driven enoyl-[acp] reductase resulting in a cis-delta5-dodecenoyl-acp which becomes a metabolite of fatty acid metabolism

Glycerol metabolism starts with glycerol is introduced into the cytoplasm through a glycerol channel GlpF Glycerol is then phosphorylated through an ATP mediated glycerol kinase resulting in a Glycerol 3-phosphate. This compound can also be obtained through a glycerophosphodiester reacting with water through a glycerophosphoryl diester phosphodiesterase or it can also be introduced into the cytoplasm through a glycerol-3-phosphate:phosphate antiporter. Glycerol 3-phosphate is then metabolized into a dihydroxyacetone phosphate in both aerobic or anaerobic conditions. In anaerobic conditions the metabolism is done through the reaction of glycerol 3-phosphate with a menaquinone mediated by a glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase protein complex. In aerobic conditions, the metabolism is done through the reaction of glycerol 3-phosphate with ubiquinone mediated by a glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase [NAD(P]+]. Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is then introduced into the fructose metabolism by turning a dihydroxyacetone into an isomer through a triosephosphate isomerase resulting in a D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate which in turn reacts with a phosphate through a NAD dependent Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase resulting in a glyceric acid 1,3-biphosphate. This compound is desphosphorylated by a phosphoglycerate kinase resulting in a 3-phosphoglyceric acid.This compound in turn can either react with a 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate-independent phosphoglycerate mutase or a 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate-independent phosphoglycerate mutase resulting in a 2-phospho-D-glyceric acid. This compound interacts with an enolase resulting in a phosphoenolpyruvic acid and water. Phosphoenolpyruvic acid can react either through a AMP driven phosphoenoylpyruvate synthase or a ADP driven pyruvate kinase protein complex resulting in a pyruvic acid. Pyruvic acid reacts with CoA through a NAD driven pyruvate dehydrogenase complex resulting in a carbon dioxide and a Acetyl-CoA which gets incorporated into the TCA cycle pathway.

The biosynthesis of glutathione starts with the introduction of L-glutamic acid through either a glutamate:sodium symporter, glutamate / aspartate : H+ symporter GltP or a glutamate / aspartate ABC transporter. Once in the cytoplasm, L-glutamice acid reacts with L-cysteine through an ATP glutamate-cysteine ligase resulting in gamma-glutamylcysteine. This compound reacts which Glycine through an ATP driven glutathione synthetase thus catabolizing Glutathione. This compound is metabolized through a spontaneous reaction with an oxidized glutaredoxin resulting in a reduced glutaredoxin and an oxidized glutathione. This compound is reduced by a NADPH glutathione reductase resulting in a glutathione. Glutathione can then be degraded into various different glutathione containing compounds by reacting with a napthalene or Bromobenzene-2,3-oxide through a glutathione S-transferase.

The synthesis of amino sugars and nucleotide sugars starts with the phosphorylation of N-Acetylmuramic acid (MurNac) through its transport from the periplasmic space to the cytoplasm. Once in the cytoplasm, MurNac and water undergo a reversible reaction catalyzed by N-acetylmuramic acid 6-phosphate etherase, producing a D-lactic acid and N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine 6-phosphate. This latter compound can also be introduced into the cytoplasm through a phosphorylating PTS permase in the inner membrane that allows for the transport of N-Acetyl-D-glucosamine from the periplasmic space. N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine 6-phosphate can also be obtained from chitin dependent reactions. Chitin is hydrated through a bifunctional chitinase to produce chitobiose. This in turn gets hydrated by a beta-hexosaminidase to produce N-acetyl-D-glucosamine. The latter undergoes an atp dependent phosphorylation leading to the production of N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine 6-phosphate. N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine 6-phosphate is then be deacetylated in order to produce Glucosamine 6-phosphate through a N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase. This compound can either be isomerized or deaminated into Beta-D-fructofuranose 6-phosphate through a glucosamine-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase and a glucosamine-6-phosphate deaminase respectively. Glucosamine 6-phosphate undergoes a reversible reaction to glucosamine 1 phosphate through a phosphoglucosamine mutase. This compound is then acetylated through a bifunctional protein glmU to produce a N-Acetyl glucosamine 1-phosphate. N-Acetyl glucosamine 1-phosphate enters the nucleotide sugar synthesis by reacting with UTP and hydrogen ion through a bifunctional protein glmU releasing pyrophosphate and a Uridine diphosphate-N-acetylglucosamine.This compound can either be isomerized into a UDP-N-acetyl-D-mannosamine or undergo a reaction with phosphoenolpyruvic acid through UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 1-carboxyvinyltransferase releasing a phosphate and a UDP-N-Acetyl-alpha-D-glucosamine-enolpyruvate. UDP-N-acetyl-D-mannosamine undergoes a NAD dependent dehydrogenation through a UDP-N-acetyl-D-mannosamine dehydrogenase, releasing NADH, a hydrogen ion and a UDP-N-Acetyl-alpha-D-mannosaminuronate, This compound is then used in the production of enterobacterial common antigens. UDP-N-Acetyl-alpha-D-glucosamine-enolpyruvate is reduced through a NADPH dependent UDP-N-acetylenolpyruvoylglucosamine reductase, releasing a NADP and a UDP-N-acetyl-alpha-D-muramate. This compound is involved in the D-glutamine and D-glutamate metabolism.

The synthesis of amino sugars and nucleotide sugars starts with the phosphorylation of N-Acetylmuramic acid (MurNac) through its transport from the periplasmic space to the cytoplasm. Once in the cytoplasm, MurNac and water undergo a reversible reaction through a N-acetylmuramic acid 6-phosphate etherase, producing a D-lactic acid and N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine 6-phosphate. This latter compound can also be introduced into the cytoplasm through a phosphorylating PTS permase in the inner membrane that allows for the transport of N-Acetyl-D-glucosamine from the periplasmic space. N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine 6-phosphate can also be obtained from chitin dependent reactions. Chitin is hydrated through a bifunctional chitinase to produce chitobiose. This in turn gets hydrated by a beta-hexosaminidase to produce N-acetyl-D-glucosamine. The latter undergoes an atp dependent phosphorylation leading to the production of N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine 6-phosphate. N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine 6-phosphate is then be deacetylated in order to produce Glucosamine 6-phosphate through a N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase. This compound can either be isomerized or deaminated into Beta-D-fructofuranose 6-phosphate through a glucosamine-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase and a glucosamine-6-phosphate deaminase respectively. Glucosamine 6-phosphate undergoes a reversible reaction to glucosamine 1 phosphate through a phosphoglucosamine mutase. This compound is then acetylated through a bifunctional protein glmU to produce a N-Acetyl glucosamine 1-phosphate. N-Acetyl glucosamine 1-phosphate enters the nucleotide sugar synthesis by reacting with UTP and hydrogen ion through a bifunctional protein glmU releasing pyrophosphate and a Uridine diphosphate-N-acetylglucosamine.This compound can either be isomerized into a UDP-N-acetyl-D-mannosamine or undergo a reaction with phosphoenolpyruvic acid through UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 1-carboxyvinyltransferase releasing a phosphate and a UDP-N-Acetyl-alpha-D-glucosamine-enolpyruvate. UDP-N-acetyl-D-mannosamine undergoes a NAD dependent dehydrogenation through a UDP-N-acetyl-D-mannosamine dehydrogenase, releasing NADH, a hydrogen ion and a UDP-N-Acetyl-alpha-D-mannosaminuronate, This compound is then used in the production of enterobacterial common antigens. UDP-N-Acetyl-alpha-D-glucosamine-enolpyruvate is reduced through a NADPH dependent UDP-N-acetylenolpyruvoylglucosamine reductase, releasing a NADP and a UDP-N-acetyl-alpha-D-muramate. The latter is also involved in the D-glutamine and D-glutamate metabolism.